Upper School thesis project
Sarah Ayers: The Application of Willing Suspension of Disbelief to British Literature
Mrs. Clark
AP English Literature
24 April 2008
Chapter I
A famous poet once said that it is “that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment which constitutes poetic faith” (Symons 4 ¶ 4). To willingly suspend one’s disbelief is to allow one’s imagination to take over while reading a piece of fictional literature or viewing a performance containing unrealistic elements. By suspending one’s disbelief, any audience member can overlook improbabilities in reality and observe in a true state of faith. For this reason, willing suspension of disbelief plays an important role in literary and entertainment fields by removing cynicism from audiences, allowing the writing of fantasy literature and its presentation to the public without fear of rejection on the basis of lack of believability. The term “willing suspension of disbelief” was coined by the British writer and philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his Biographia Literaria, and his, as well as other British authors’, works of fantasy are p erfect subjects for the examination of this phenomenon (Mellown 1-2). The application and induction of willing suspension of disbelief can be examined throughout the different ages of British literature.
The application of willing suspension of disbelief can be seen in literature throughout the ages; it is as common in recent literature as it is in the classics. Where one finds fantasy and the supernatural one also encounters willing suspension of disbelief. Throughout each period of literature, writers have captured audience members by inducing their suspension of disbelief, providing them with the opportunity to become completely engulfed by the story that they are reading or the play or movie that they are watching .
Because willing suspension of disbelief is as much an author’s responsibility as an audience’s response, writers have formed techniques that allow them to pervade the audience’s mind more easily. By using techniques such as real world settings for supernatural occurrences and personification of fantastic beings, authors can induce their audience members’ suspension of disbelief and essentially trick the readers into a state of literary faith. The best authors are able to subtly move their audiences into supernatural worlds or unrealistic situations without hesitation between reality and fantasy; they have mastered the trickery involved in the induction of suspension of disbelief and consequently have become praised for creating the best fictional literature in history (Wilson 2). Among these highly praised writers are poets like Coleridge, children’s books authors like J.K. Rowling, and the most renowned writer of all time, William Shakespeare. The writers who are best at transi tioning their readers into suspending disbelief are the most praised for their work because the audience members are able to become part of the story and, therefore, become more emotionally tied to the characters and the authors themselves.
My personal interest in this topic comes from my love of fantasy literature. Having grown up in the era of Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings, my generation’s interest in reading was sparked by the fantasy literature that was written during our childhood, and, therefore, my first and continuing love of literature rests in fantasy. Consequently, it seems appropriate that I would study why it is that people, especially children, become so enthralled in fantasy and the supernatural in literature as well as other forms of entertainment. As shown by the obvious market of most fantasy literature, children are more susceptive to willingly suspending disbelief because their imaginations are much more active than those of adults. However, throughout history some of the best writers have succeeded in duping audiences composed entirely of adults and presenting these people with the opportunity to feel like children again. Different authors have different approaches to ind ucing willing suspension of disbelief , and some, like Tolkien, reject the idea of willing suspension of disbelief as a whole and replace it with a more “positively” connotated “second belief” which to them suggests faith rather than tolerance. Because it is so hard to write in a way that people will believe the story being told, authors see fantasy writing as a higher form of art than other forms of writing, and among the first of this kind of writing was the classic epic Beowulf (Reilly 6).
Chapter II
An epic is a long, narrative poem centered around a hero of imposing stature and dealing with events of national importance. The main characteristics of epic poetry include the larger-than-life hero, the vast setting, the courageous act, and the supernatural element. Beowulf, recorded after centuries of oral tradition, is considered a primary or folk epic and, as such, is characterized by its supernatural occurrences as well as its traditional hero of superhuman strength and outstanding virtue (Allingham 1). The supernatural elements of Beowulf introduce the possibility of examining the application of willing suspension of disbelief to the Anglo-Saxon epic. The cultural, historical, and regional components of the poem play a major role in the induction of willing suspension of disbelief, and by discovering the origin of the poem, one also discovers the origin of belief in such an unrealistic story.
The traditional hero is of foremost importance when analyzing epic poetry, and Beowulf, the hero for which the poem is named, possesses all of the qualities of such a hero. In addition to his superhuman strength and stature, Beowulf uses a distinctive weapon, fights when others cower, faces supernatural forces, and maintains the virtues of his society, all of which are important characteristics of the epic hero (2-3).
The character and personage of Beowulf must be brought out and impressed on the audience; it is the poet’s hero that they are bound to admire. He appeals to them, not directly, but with unmistakable force and emphasis, to say that they have beheld (‘as many unworthiness define’) the nature of the hero, and to give him their praises. (Ker 6¶ 4)
In order to enthrall the audience enough to suspend their disbelief, the poet makes Beowulf the object of admiration, and through this admiration, the poet gains access to the readers’ imaginations. Beowulf’s author, unlike the common romantic poet, instills permanently into the readers’ minds the characters of the story as well as their thoughts and sentiments.
The poet extends the already-achieved suspension of disbelief by giving the characters realistic tendencies. Beowulf says, “And this dragon’s treasure, his gold and everything hidden in that tower, will be mine or war will sweep me to a bitter death!” (Beowulf 41) Like all humans, Beowulf is obsessed with treasure, and this desire for riches is used to give Beowulf a more realistic appearance to the epic’s audience. Beowulf‘s willingness to serve is itself a humanizing aspect of the poem. “There are popular heroes of tradition to this day who are called to do for lonely houses the service done by Beowulf for the house of Hrothgar” (Ker 5¶ 3). The antagonist of the poem, Grendel, is also given human qualities in order to make him appear more realistic. For example, Grendel shows his consciousness of the ways of humanity by choosing to attack Herot, the kingdom of Hrothgar, in the middle of the night in order to avoid being seen (< I>Beowulf 22).
The audience’s participation in the suspension of disbelief comes primarily from the historical and cultural origins of the story. Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon piece of literature, and the Anglo-Saxons have a distinctive culture. The story of Beowulf was made immediately believable to its eighth century audience through the theme of duty, an important element of Anglo-Saxon culture (18-19). Beowulf expresses his duty saying, “My people have said, the wisest, most knowing and best of them, that my duty was to go to the Danes’ Great king” (27). Beowulf’s faith in fate is also a cultural tie to the Anglo-Saxons that allowed the story to entice the audience. Even in the face of death, Beowulf leaves his life in the hands of fate; he says, “I mean to stand, not run from his shooting flames, stand till fate decides which of us wins” (41).
According to many scholars, the text of Beowulf is actually a compilation of several layers and versions of the original story; knowing this, many have discovered the presence of Christian elements throughout the story. These Christian elements relate the story to cultures other than the original Scandinavian and have allowed the story to retain its believability throughout the ages (Ward 2-3). In addition to its cultural elements, Beowulf’s regional and historical accuracies aid in the induction of the readers’ willing suspension of disbelief. By placing the story in a real setting and giving it historically accurate support, the author or authors of Beowulf increase the readers’ ability to suspend disbelief at least for a time. The story is set in Denmark and is based on actual occurrences in Anglo-Saxon history. “Many of the persons and events mentioned in Beowulf are known to us also from various Scandinavian records, especially Saxo’s Danish H istory, Hrolfs Saga Kraka, Ynglinga Saga (with the poem Ynglingatal) and the fragments of the lost Skioldunga Saga” (1).
Although it contains the supernatural elements of an epic poem, the story of Beowulf and Grendel is not wildly improbable because it agrees with the conditions of real life (Ker 5¶ 4). By willingly suspending their disbelief, readers allow themselves to temporarily believe the story which opens their minds to emotion. This is the reason we see emotional reactions to fictional literature. When readers accept the story of Beowulf as true even for a moment, they are compelled to express emotions as if the events were actually occurring; a common response to Grendel is often a sense of fear and disgust. Therefore, a primary indicator of willing suspension of disbelief is the presence of emotion in the reader or viewer of a literary work, and the master of psychology and bringing out emotion in literature is the incomparable William Shakespeare.
Chapter III
William Shakespeare, English poet and playwright, is now widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent dramatist. Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the nineteenth century. The Romantics, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians hero-worshipped Shakespeare with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw called "bardolatry". Shakespeare was known as the “Bard of Avon” or simply “The Bard” for his po etic achievement. In the twentieth century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are consistently performed and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world (“William Shakespeare”).
William Shakespeare’s mastery of the English language cannot be seen only in his style but also in his techniques for inducing willing suspension of disbelief in his audiences. Although Shakespeare deals with reality, improbabilities are present throughout his works, and, as a playwright, Shakespeare was responsible for making these improbabilities seem probable for at least a moment, a moment at which willing suspension of disbelief can be achieved and a writer can truly pervade the thoughts and emotions of his audience. Supernatural characters and occurrences are the most prevalent improbabilities throughout William Shakespeare’s plays; by examining his approach to the supernatural one can discover Shakespeare’s techniques for making the unrealistic believable. Whether it be the Soothsayer in Julius Cesar , the ghost in Hamlet, or the weird sisters in Macbeth, mysterious characters play major roles in many of Shakespeare’s plays. Even in plays where the su pernatural is not present, Shakespeare uses characters to make the audience believe despite improbabilities. For example, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre, a play that was not written entirely by Shakespeare and, therefore, contains some inconsistencies, the narrator Gower acts as a transitional character used to make the play flow more smoothly (Whitworth 1).
Julius Caesar is no exception when exploring the supernatural in Shakespearean plays, and Shakespeare’s main technique in dealing with these supernatural elements is placing them in a historically accurate setting. The Soothsayer appears throughout the play warning Caesar to “Beware the ides of March” (Craig 5). When taken at face value, one would assume that this prophetic character is simply insane, but when placed in the setting of the Roman Empire, the character seems to be in its element and no longer unrealistic. Another supernatural element that Shakespeare includes in Julius Caesar is Casca’s exposition on the strange occurrences of his walk through the streets of Rome.
Casca. Are not you mov’d, when all the sway of earth
Shakes like a thing unfirm? O Cicero!
I have seen tempests, when the scolding winds
Have riv’d the knotty oaks; and I have seen 8
The ambitious ocean swell and rage and foam,
To be exalted with the threat’ning clouds:
But never till to-night, never till now,
Did I go through a tempest dropping fire. 12
Either there is a civil strife in heaven,
Or else the world, too saucy with the gods,
Incenses them to send destruction. (Shakespeare Act I. Scene III. qtd. in Craig 13)
In addition to the fiery rain and earthquakes, Casca tells of people aflame who remain unburned and his meeting with a lion in the street believing the entire time that these are the signs of a change in the climate of Rome prophesying an event to come (13-14) . Obviously, these amazing occurrences are extremely unlikely; however, by setting the play in Rome before the fall of Caesar, the event that is being prophesied, Shakespeare makes the occurrences seem possible for a moment, allowing his audience to believe. Because the audience already knows of the murder of Caesar, the prophetic nature of Shakespeare’s supernatural elements throughout Julius Caesar enhances the audience’s ability to willingly suspend their disbelief, and when the audience has achieved sufficient belief they are able to become emotionally attached to the characters of the story. Therefore, when trying to discover whether one has suspended his or her disbelief while reading or viewing Julius Caes ar, one can examine the emotional reaction to the death of Caesar and determine if he or she has become emotionally tied to the character.
Another supernatural character that Shakespeare handles with care is the ghost of Hamlet’s father. In his article “The Parallel Plots in Hamlet: A Reply to Dr. W. W. Greg”, J. Dover Wilson addresses Shakespeare’s technique for inducing willing suspension of disbelief in Hamlet.
Whatever Shakespeare’s own beliefs may have been, and whatever secret understanding he may have wished to establish with the ‘judicious’ among his audience, he took very great care indeed to make his ghost as real and as convincing as possible to the ’generality.’ Hamlet opens as a ghost-story. The whole setting of the first scene, the midnight hour, the starlight, the ancient castle in the background, the handful of soldiers in the foreground who can barely see each other’s faces, so dark is it, all this is deliberately calculated to throw the audience into that ’willing suspension of disbelief’ which Shakespeare needed for his play.
Wilson goes on to say that the reality of the Ghost is built so well that the audience trusts it from the first scene (Wilson 2-3). By creating a ghost that is realistic by the society’s standards, Shakespeare thickens the plot of Hamlet and gains the audience’s faith. Without the Ghost, Hamlet’s suspicion of his uncle would not have arisen, and for that reason, it is essential for the success of the story that the Ghost is able to gain the readers’ sympathy and in doing so, become believable.
Throughout Macbeth, Shakespeare uses the prophetic, weird sisters to keep the plot moving, and by making them a crucial element of the story, he in turn makes them believable. Macbeth is set in tenth century Scotland and England in an atmosphere consisting primarily of doom and foreboding intensified by foul weather and dark nights. Whenever the witches appear, they cast a pall over the sky (Shakespeare 243 ¶ 4-5). From the beginning of the story, the weird sisters make prophecies about Macbeth’s future saying that he will be “Thane of Glamis”, “Thane of Cawdor” , and “King” (250). Because Macbeth is so intrigued by these prophesies, he ultimately causes them to come true. Macbeth’s willingness to believe the weird sisters inevitably encourages the audience to suspend their disbelief and, by doing so, open themselves to the unfolding of Macbeth’s future. The witches appear to Macbeth throughout the play to reinforce the prophesie s they have made, and in doing so, they reinforce their own believability to the audience by gaining their trust (295). Shakespeare uses the necessity of the weird sisters to the plot of Macbeth to secure their believability, and once the audience trusts the sisters, the willing suspension of disbelief necessary to move the story forward is achieved.
In addition to using perfect settings, giving supernatural characters realistic tendencies, and stressing the necessity of certain characters to the plot of a play, Shakespeare uses a technique for inducing willing suspension of disbelief when the unrealistic parts of the story are not supernatural but simply improbable. When these cases of improbability rather than fantasy occur, Shakespeare resorts to a character who ties up any loose ends; an example of such a character is that of Gower in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Because Pericles was not written entirely by Shakespeare, there exist some textual difficulties throughout the play which could cause the reader to lose faith in the plot, and for this reason, Shakespeare makes use of Gower, the presenter and chorus of the stage play, making textual difficulties less noticeable to viewers than to readers. As Charles W. Whitworth explains in “Pericles: Overview”, “The reassuring figure of Gower guides us through the improbabl e tale.” He goes on to explain the nature of Gower in the play as follows:
Shakespeare seems content to leave the improbabilities and wonders of romance as they are not to try to account for them or naturalize them, but rather to submit- and submit his audience- to them in all their outrageous unlikelihood. Gower is there to refer us to the book where the story is recorded, his authority, teasing us by showing us that which cannot ultimately be shown, but only heard and taken on faith, or a more than willing suspension of disbelief. (Whitworth 2 ¶ 1)
As Whitworth explains, Shakespeare recognizes the necessity of having Gower to induce the willing suspension of disbelief that is integral in reaching the audience on a level beyond conscious thought. William Shakespeare is a world renowned poet and playwright who achieved his fame through his mastery of the English language. Shakespeare’s ability to induce willing suspension of disbelief in his audience members is an undeniable contributor to his reputation; without knowing the human psychology so well, Shakespeare would never have become the icon that he is today. Because he can reach people on a personal level by suspending their disbelief, viewers and readers of Shakespeare’s work relate to the characters in his plays, and by pervading the minds of his audience members, Shakespeare has achieved a level of literary intimacy that few writers have been able to replicate. However, Shakespeare and the authors of Beowulf achieved these great feats of faith before the term “willing suspension of disbelief” had even been coined.
Chapter IV
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in Ottery St. Mary, England in 1772; he was the youngest of fourteen children, only four of whom survived (“The Romantic Age” 594 ¶ 1). Coleridge became a leader of the eighteenth century British Romantic movement, and his works, criticisms, and philosophies have become an integral part of literary history (“Samuel Taylor Coleridge” 1 ¶ 1). It is to Coleridge that we owe this paper, because Coleridge introduced the phrase “willing suspension of disbelief” in his and William Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads in 1798 (Noyes 2 ¶ 1). The friendship between Coleridge and Wordsworth is said to be one of the most productive friendships of literary history, and their collection, Lyrical Ballads, containing Coleridge’s famous poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is considered “the first great work of the Romantic school of p oetry” (“Samuel” 1 ¶ 5). “Perhaps Coleridge’s greatest legacy is the insight he affords his reader on the role of imagination in literature. His belief that literature is a magical blend of thought and emotion is at the very heart of his greatest works, in which the unreal is made to seem real” (“The Romantic Age” 594 ¶ 5).
Arthur Symons says that Coleridge was “anxious to believe anything that took him beyond the limits of time and space” and that “he was always setting his mind to think about itself” (Symons 1 ¶ 3). Throughout his life, Coleridge searched for the “absolute,” and his constant disillusionment with imperfection enabled him to become both a poet and a philosopher. By assuming this dual role, Symons says, “He is the one philosophical critic who is also a poet” and is, as a result, “the one critic who instinctively knows his way through all the intricacies of the creative mind” (1-2 ¶ 4-1). The majority of Coleridge’s criticisms can be found in his Biographia Literaria in which he analyzes the poetry of Wordsworth and Shakespeare, who he claimed “knew the human mind, and its most minute and intimate workings” ( Coleridge qtd. in Symons 2 ¶ 2). Coleridge discovered William Shakespeare’s mastery of language and how it can be used to enthrall the audience, as we did in the previous chapter.
Mellown explains that Biographia Literaria is among the most important critical works because “it bases a comprehensive theory of imagination and a substantial body of practical criticism on a general philosophy of the human mind” (Mellown 1 ¶ 1). In this great work, Coleridge defines the primary imagination as the mind’s reshaping of the external world into something of meaning . The secondary imagination, in Coleridge’s opinion, shapes diverse materials into a significant hole, but unlike the primary imagination, it is “initiated by a conscious act of will.” This secondary imagination reconciles opposites, allowing poetry to have unity and, therefore, enhancing its believability(1 ¶ 3-4). From these theories of the imagination comes the principal that poetry is connected to pleasure, and as Mellown says, “this communication of pleasure enables the poet to hold the attention of his readers” (1 ¶ 6). By capturing the audience’s attention through pleasure, the poet enables himself to induce the audience’s willing suspension of disbelief, an ability that Coleridge felt was very important and to which he dedicated himself in his and Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads. Coleridge criticized Wordsworth’s works and theories in his Biographia Literaria, disagreeing with his underestimation of the powers of the imagination (2 ¶ 1).
The partnership between Coleridge and Wordsworth was one of the most influential collaborations in the history of English literature. However, despite many attempts to work together, the pair realized that they needed to split their work into two separate sections which were ultimately united into one work. Coleridge later said:
In this idea originated the plan of Lyrical Ballads, in which it was agreed that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic; yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest . . .sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith. Mr. Wordsworth, on the other hand, was to propose to himself as his object, to give the charm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to the supernatural, by awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom, and directing it to the loveliness and wonders of the world before us.
[Both of them were to observe] the two cardinal points of poetry, the power of exciting the sympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature, and the power of giving the interest of novelty by the modifying colours of imagination. ( Coleridge qtd. in Noyes 1-2)
Lyrical Ballads consists of twenty-three poems, four by Coleridge and nineteen by Wordsworth; of Coleridge’s four poems, only one, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, was written with his new poetic theory in mind. On the other hand, Wordsworth composed the majority of his works for the collection in accordance with his assignment; he turned “tragic themes into psychological studies so that the feeling developed could give importance to the action” (3 ¶ 2-5). Wordsworth essentially invaded the minds of the audience so as to control their perception of the poem, consequently inducing the willing suspension of disbelief necessary to have one’s poetry be accepted by the masses as true art. The poets published Lyrical Ballads anonymously in 1798, and the collection’s critical reception was cold to say the least. Noyes notes that the general sentiment was that some of the poems, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” in particular, were too experiment al to understand and were, therefore, unworthy as poetry. However, some critics noted touches of genius in some of the writing and could not altogether condemn the writhing of the unknown poets (17 ¶ 1-5).
While Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” was initially considered incomprehensible, critic Arthur Symons now says,
“The Ancient Mariner” is the most sustained piece of imagination in the whole of English poetry; and it has almost every definable merit of imaginative narrative. It is the only poem I know which is all point and yet all poetry; because, I suppose, the point is really a point of mystery. It is full of simple, daily emotion, transported by an awful power of sight, to which the limits of reality are no barrier, into an unknown sea and air; it is realized throughout the whole of its ghastly and marvelous happenings; and there is in the narrative an ease, a buoyancy almost, which I can only compare with the music of Mozart, extracting its sweetness from the stuff of tragedy; it presents to us the utmost physical and spiritual horror, not only without disgust, but with an alluring beauty. (Symons 4 ¶ 5)
Among Coleridge’s greatest works are those he composed from his dreams, and Symons claims that in “The Ancient Mariner”, supernaturalism accepts the whole responsibility of dreams. Symons sees “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” as the creation of an entirely new style of writing; he says,
The impossible, frankly accepted, with its own strict, inverted logic; the creation of a new atmosphere, outside the known world, which becomes as real as the air about us, and yet never loses its strangeness; the shiver that comes to us, as it came to the wedding-guest, from the simple good faith of the teller; here is a whole new creation, in subject, mood, and technique.
Symons goes on to explain that by having the ability to transfer his dreams into the waking hours, Coleridge ultimately forced upon himself “that willing suspension of disbelief for a moment, which constitutes poetic faith,” and as a result, every image that appealed to his imagination was real (4 ¶ 3).
In the case of “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, Coleridge heavily relied on setting to induce the audience’s willing suspension of disbelief. By making the main character a mariner, Coleridge automatically made the story relevant and realistic to eighteenth and nineteenth century British readers who encountered seafarers on a daily basis. The initial setting, a wedding party, gives the poem a sense of reality from the very beginning, but this realistic setting has an underlying mysticism from the onset provided by the “ancient Mariner” and his “glittering eyes.” (Coleridge “Rime” 596 ¶ 3-4) The poem also enthralls the reader from the start because it is a frame tale, and the readers are able to put themselves in the Wedding Guest’s position and hear the story of the Mariner as if it were firsthand. By providing his readers with this setting and perspective, Coleridge is able to successfully suspend the disbelief of the more imaginative reade rs in order to reveal to them the supernatural events that occurred after the killing of the albatross. “Coleridge wrote that successful poetry is that which will arouse ‘the sympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature’ while, at the same time, ’giving the interest of novelty by the modifying colors of the imagination’”( 619 ¶ 3).
“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is successful because the reader pities the circumstances of the Ancient Mariner, and though the events seem unrealistic, some are based in reality. For example, the parching of the sailors’ tongues, “And every tongue through utter drought, /Was whither at the root; /We could not speak, no more than if /We had been Choked with soot”, is a probable occurrence on a long voyage, and any images the crew claimed to have seen could have easily been hallucinations brought on by extended exposure to the sun (603 ¶ 6-7). Therefore, despite early criticisms, Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” can be considered poetry, and by his definition, it can even be considered successful poetry.
Another work by Coleridge that even better exemplifies his ability to transfer his dreams into the waking hours is “Kubla Khan.” The introduction to the poem explains that Coleridge claims to have fallen asleep while reading a passage about Kubla Khan, the founder of China’s Mongol dynasty, and had a dream that inspired the poem which he immediately began to transfer to paper but never completed ( Coleridge “Kubla” 621 ¶ 1). Although the poem is full of unbelievable images such as the sacred rivers, a sunless sea, a demon lover, a lifeless ocean, ancestral voices, and a sunny dome of ice, “Kubla Khan” maintains a mystical unity that allows its readers to suspend their disbelief and see these amazing images in the light that Coleridge sees them, a light of imagination and dream induced reality (621-622) . Mary Mahony says,
The thematic repetition, intricacy of rhyme and metrical schemes, as well as the carefully juxtaposed images beautifully "harmonize and support" the poem's purpose and theme. In "Kubla Khan," Coleridge has created more than simple lyric poetry. He has fulfilled his poetic ideal of a harmonious blend of meaning and form, which results in a ‘graceful and intelligent whole.’ (Mahoney 3 ¶ 3)
Because of his success in unification and induction of willing suspension of disbelief, Coleridge was able to convert dreamlike images like those in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “Kubla Khan” into believable storytelling poetry, a goal that other writers would strive to achieve in years to come, writers like Mary Shelley.
Chapter V
Since its publication in 1818, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein has generated a great deal of literary criticism. Critics of Shelley’s work generally agree that the writing and images are excellent, but conflicting opinions arise with respect to the book’s scientific references and believability (Vasbinder 1-2). Harold Bloom, in his “Afterword” to the Signet Classics edition of Frankenstein, suggests that “what makes Frankenstein a good book…is that it contains one of the most vivid versions we have of the Romantic mythology of the self ,” and “because it lacks the sophistication and imaginative complexity…Frankenstein affords a unique introduction to the archetypal world of the Romantics” (Bloom 202 ¶ 2). Riding on the coattails of Coleridge’s introduction of Romanticism into the mainstream of the literary community, Frankenstein presents its readers with strong Romantic settings and images, images that aid in the induction of that suspension of disbelief that is necessary to experience the narrative fully. In addition to these images and settings, Frankenstein’s structure, themes, and historically accurate scientific references bring about willing suspension of disbelief in its readers.
Critic E. Nageswara Rao describes the structure of Shelley’s Frankenstein, a frame narrative, as “a ‘Chinese-box structure’ of three concentric circles.” The innermost circle deals with the monster’s story, the next with Victor’s story, and the last with Walton’s story ( Rao qtd. in Vasbinder 12 ¶ 4). By creating this framed structure, Shelley allows the readers to develop a trust in the speakers. This trust, in turn, allows the readers to become emotionally invested in the story even if they do not realize their investment which sets them up for the willing suspension of disbelief they must undergo in order to appreciate the full meaning of the book. The emotional investment of the audience can best be perceived in their reactions to the Romantic images and settings throughout the book.
Although they attacked the novel as a whole, critics from the Quarterly Review admitted that “Frankenstein has passages which appall the mind and make the flesh creep”( qtd. in Vasbinder 2 ¶ 3-4). Similarly, Gentleman’s Magazine claimed that “the description of scenery is excellent” (qtd. in Vasbinder1 ¶ 7). Because the imagery is so vivid, the book maintains a realistic quality despite its most obscure events and characters. The mysterious, yet realistic setting is described in all its Romantic glory by Robert Walton in letters to his sister. He says, “I am going to unexpected regions, to ‘the land of mist and snow,’ but I shall kill no albatross, therefore do not be alarmed for my safety or if I should come back to you as worn as the ‘Ancient Mariner’” (Shelley 6 ¶ 3). Later he goes on to describe his situation and speaks of “ice, which closed in the ship o n all sides, scarcely leaving her the sea-room in which she floated” (9 ¶ 1). These Romantic images satisfy all probability with the actual weather conditions of the North Pole; however, each contains a tinge of mystery that pervades the readers’ imaginations and gives them a feeling of uneasiness, a sentiment which they later discover is warranted. Shelley’s allusion to Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” further secures her novel into the realm of Romanticism, and by acknowledging one of Romantic literature’s most notable authors, Shelley calls her readers to view her work as fitting in the same literary perspective and to read it as such.
Another vivid Romantic passage from Shelley’s book is the scene of the monster’s awakening. Victor says, “It was on a dreary night of November…It was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extinguished light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open”(42 ¶ 1). This passage maintains all the creepiness that is commonly associated with Gothic Romantic images, and its vividness and near tangibility provided the nineteenth century literary community with what Harold Bloom calls “a unique introduction to the archetypal world of the Romantics” (Bloom 202 ¶ 2). Critic Eino Railo addresses the scientific atmosphere of the book, noting that “the haunted room” of earlier Romantic works “has become a ‘cabbalistic laboratory’” in Frankenstein showing Shelley’s personal take on Romanticism (Vasbinder 4 ¶ 6-7). By altering traditional Romantic images, Shelley is able to fit Romanticism into her time in a more realistic way and, as a result, is able to induce willing suspension of disbelief in her readers.
In addition to its structure and imagery, Frankenstein’s themes and scientific background play a major role in inducing the willing suspension of disbelief of its readers. Frankenstein’s most prominent themes include the danger of knowledge, the conflict between man and himself, man’s search for himself, and the good and bad nature of man (16-17). Because these themes are pertinent to real life, their presence in the novel affords Shelley the luxury of being able to include extremely improbable and even impossible occurrences without losing the readers’ faith. The book’s realistic themes induce willing suspension of disbelief in the reader and form a link of faith between the reader and the book that cannot be broken by mere obscurities. Another element of the book that bolsters the readers’ faith is the scientific accuracy behind the impossible feat of reincarnation. Vasbinder claims in his “Mary Shelley and the Critical Tradition” that “many of Victor’s scientific studies and attitudes can be traced in eighteenth-century science” (17 ¶ 23). Even though the reader knows that reincarnation of random body parts arranged into the human form is absolutely absurd, Victor’s studies and ideas are not completely unheard of for their time and for that reason, give Shelley’s novel scientific credibility and therefore believability. Two authors who took creation even further are J.R.R. Tolkien and J.K. Rowling, and their abilities in the art of inducing willing suspension of disbelief are second to none.
Chapter VI
When analyzing twentieth and twenty-first century fantasy literature, one must consider the influential works of J.R.R. Tolkien and J.K. Rowling. Not only have their series touched lifelong fantasy readers, but they have also brought the experience of fantasy literature to fiction novices and children, the most imaginatively receptive audience in the human race. R.J. Reilly discusses Tolkien’s opinion of fantasy literature in his “Tolkien and the Fairy Story,” saying, “Just because Fantasy deals with things which do not exist in the Primary World, Tolkien holds, it is ‘not a lower but a higher form of Art, indeed the most nearly pure form, and so (when achieved) the most potent.’…good Fantasy is very difficult to write” (Reilly 7 ¶ 1). Although they approach it in different ways, both Tolkien and Rowling know what it takes to create good fantasy literature, and their ability to induce willing suspension of disbelief or as Tolkien prefers “Seco nd Belief” in their readers is the reason for the success of their fantasy series.
J.R.R. Tolkien, the creator of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings trilogy, boasts a slightly different perspective on the state of the reader’s mind than Coleridge. Reilly explains Tolkien’s point of view saying:
The writer of the story is really a subcreator, he creates a “Second World” which the mind of the reader really enters. Further, the reader’s state of mind is not accurately described in the phrase “willing suspension of disbelief,” which indicates a kind of tolerance or tacit agreement. When the story is successful, the reader practices “Second Belief,” which is an active and positive thing. So long as the writer’s art does not fail him, “what he relates is ‘true’: it accords with the laws of that world. You therefore believe it, while you are…inside.” (6 ¶ 4)
Although it debunks Coleridge’s theory, it is only different by means of perspective, whether the readers consider themselves inside or outside of the story, and both deal with the readers’ faith in the creation of the author. Therefore, one can consider Tolkien’s means of inducing “Second Belief” in the same way as one would analyze his techniques for inducing “willing suspension of disbelief,” holding in mind that Tolkien assumes that his readers feel as though they are viewing the story from within the world he has created. Forming this perspective for his readers is Tolkien’s first technique for inducing his audience’s belief because they are able to see the story first hand.
Another means by which Tolkien induces the reader’s “Second Belief” can be found in his theory of the “sub-creator.” Grotta explains this theory; “When a fantasy world is consistent with the real world--with variations and differences of course-- the storyteller or mythmaker is less a creator than a sub-creator. He discovers rather than invents a never-never land that is at once similar and unlike our own.” Tolkien’s fantasy world of Middle-earth is like the real world in that it has “forests, rivers, and mountains,” and in addition to “strange races and amazing creatures, there are also humans and familiar animals.” These similarities between Middle-earth and the world we know allow readers to accept Tolkien’s more “fantastic elements.” Don Akers says that the theory of the sub-creator “explains the narrator’s familiarity with Middle earth in The Hobbit. The narrator is like a professor or historian who has discovered Bilbo’s chronicle of his adventures, th e Red Book of Westmarch. The narrator shares the evidence of this fantastic world with the reader.” (Akers 2 ¶ 1-3). Because the reader is discovering the world with the narrator, Tolkien allows the reader to believe as the narrator believes. Tolkien’s techniques of creating inter-world similarities and narrative perspective are supported by his theory of the “sub-creator” and help readers to “suspend disbelief” (1-2). Akers in his “Overview to ‘The Hobbit’” says,
The most successful writers of fantasy have followed Tolkien’s pattern: they discover their worlds rather than create them. In the 1973 introduction to The Hobbit, Peter S. Beagle wrote: For in the end it is Middle-earth and its dwellers that we love... I said once that the world he charts was there long before him, and I still believe it. (3 ¶ 5-6)
Tolkien’s inclusion of social and political controversy in The Lord of the Rings trilogy brings the series even closer to its readers’ hearts and, as a result, makes it seem even more believable. War and racism are two elements present in the trilogy that are pertinent to today’s society. “The story itself is of incredible adventure and of war on the largest scale possible in this world.” War is a social and political controversy that has, at some point, touched everyone, and for that reason, it is a useful element in making the fantastic resemble the realistic. Another universal problem that can be seen in the trilogy is racism. Each race has its own prejudices, and Reilly notes that “though there is a common language, most of the beings prefer to speak their own tongue” (Reilly 2 ¶ 3-4). By including pertinent social and political topics into his books, Tolkien forms a connection between the real world and his fantasy world that allow s the reader to believe, at least temporarily, that which they would normally label absurd.
An underlying technique for inducing “Second Belief” that Tolkien uses in The Lord of the Rings is an “inherent morality” that is present throughout the series. Reilly says that Tolkien gives the trilogy a “sense of cosmic moral law, consciously obeyed or disobeyed by the characters, but existing nowhere as a formulated and codified body of doctrine” (5 ¶ 4). It is this “cosmic law” that supports such themes as “personal responsibility” and a person’s “relation to the universe”, themes that touch readers on a personal level and promote suspension of disbelief. Critic Patricia Meyer Spacks gives Frodo and Sam’s free will as an example of these themes. She says, “Frodo and Sam’s dedication to the Quest shows a sense of duty not merely to themselves; it shows also a ‘cosmic responsibility, justified by the existence of some vast, unnamed power of good” (Spacks qtd. in Reilly 3 ¶ 4-5). Tolkien’s use of a sense of morality throughout the trilogy gives rise to themes that reach readers on a personal level and therefore allow them to suspend disbelief. Using this and other techniques Tolkien created a powerful literary series that pervades the minds of its readers and allows them to see more clearly their own world. Spacks explains, “Tolkien has rejected realism in order ‘to talk more forcefully about reality’” (3 ¶ 5).
The twenty-first century’s most successful children’s fantasy author and the person responsible for the renewed interest shown by children for reading is J.K. Rowling. Rowling’s Harry Potter series has had a profound impact on the literary world and even more profound an impact on children, many of whom had never found pleasure in reading before the phenomenal series. The story is comprised in a series rather than a single book “because the creation of a detailed world leads naturally to the expansion of story beyond the constraints of a single novel,” and the world created by Rowling is inundated with unique and interesting details (Johansen 3 ¶ 4). J.K. Rowling uses particular techniques throughout her works to insure that her audience experiences that willing suspension of disbelief that allows them to appreciate the books in their entirety.
Rowling uses the settings and events of her parallel world to bridge the gap between reality and fantasy in order to induce willing suspension of disbelief in her audience. The plot of her series takes place in “a realistic contemporary world which contains within it a parallel magical society” which is also much like our own. Rowling’s magical world that is set within a familiar society “draws in the non-fantasy reader who might baulk at being asked to encompass imaginatively an utterly new world” (1 ¶ 2-3). As Harry Potter crosses through the wall onto “platform nine and three quarters,” so too does the reader pass into a world which, although resembling ours, contains the wonders of magic. Harry and the reader learn together that magic really exists and that there is a whole world beyond that which they already know. By allowing the reader and the main character to discover this fantastic world together, Rowling creates a link between the r eader and Harry which allows the reader to believe that he or she is truly a part of this amazing world. In addition to the familiar setting of the Harry Potter series, the commonplace events of the magical world such as holidays and athletic celebrations resemble our own, and this resemblance deepens further the faith that readers have in the world. For example, Hogwarts, along with the whole magical community, celebrates the Christmas holiday in full with “a dozen frost-covered Christmas trees and thick streamers of holly and mistletoe…enchanted snow was falling” (Rowling qtd. in Johansen 9 ¶ 4). The presence of such holidays in the series makes the magical world even more realistic and creates a connection between what excites the magical community and what excites the “Muggle” or non-magical community. In the same way, the fanaticism depicted in the description of quidditch games, especially the Quidditch World Cup, resemble the scene at any professional soccer game (Rowling 95-116). These particular similarities are extremely effective in regards to children, the audience for which Rowling intended her writing. Holidays and athletic events are very important times in all children’s lives, and Rowling knew that through at least one, she could reach her audience on a personal level.
One technique that J.K. Rowling uses to reach her readers psychologically is her use of characters in whom people can see humanity. Rowling purposefully makes Harry, the main character, “without many strong characteristics.” Harry is a character in which “everyone can see something of themselves;” he is an “Everyman” who has universal “appeal” (Johansen 1 ¶ 4). By allowing the readers to see themselves in the main character, Rowling helps them to suspend their disbelief and feel the emotions that Harry feels. Steven Barfield notes that in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, “we see that the chief wizard…is brought firmly into the realm of psychology and human fragility: ‘Dumbledore was showing signs of weakness…’”(Rowling qtd. in Barfield 3 ¶ 3). By showing both the strengths and weaknesses of humanity through Dumbledore and Harry, Rowling shows children that not even wizards are perfect , and these imperfections make these amazing characters seem even more like regular humans. Through the characters in the novel we see every face of humanity from evil in Voldemort, to passion in Hermione, to eccentricity in Hagrid. With every face of humanity present, one cannot help but believe for a moment that anything is possible and that maybe this magical world does exist.
Not only do the characters play a major role in inducing willing suspension of disbelief in the Harry Potter novels, but their roles in their communities fulfill the realism of the unreal world that Rowling creates. The predominant setting within the magical world is Hogwarts, a boarding school, and as it is a school, there are certain roles that must be fulfilled to create a believable school environment. For example, the wealthy “bully” role is filled by Draco Malfoy, the good and “sturdy schoolmaster” by Dumbledore, the evil teacher by Severus Snape, and the brain by Hermione. Dan McVeigh assesses the “school” elements of the books and notes that “sports are central” and “school rules are important but not ultimate” (McVeigh 4-5). As in most secondary schools, athletics are very important to the students, and at Hogwarts, quidditch is the students’ favorite pastime. Similarly, school rules are present and enforced every year at Hogwarts, and like any curious children, Rowling’s characters get into their fair share of trouble. Because most of her audience reads the series while still in school, Rowling’s use of a normal boarding school environment helps her readers to relate to the story and to experience it more fully than if it were to take place somewhere else. J.K. Rowling also uses popular motifs and humor in her works to connect with her audience. The “suffering orphan” and good triumphing over evil motifs present in the Harry Potter series are endearing themes to which everyone feels emotionally drawn. Another way of forming an emotional connection to the reader is through humor, and the Harry Potter series is “marked by humour with a great deal of slapstick” (Johansen 1 ¶ 3). Rowling is successful in her fantasy writing because she is able to reach her audience through her characters and the roles that they play as well as through her themes and the emotions she can expose.
Like Tolkien, Rowling also depicts social and political controversy similar to that of the real world in her fantasy world, and in doing so, she draws yet another bridge to reality that helps readers to suspend their disbelief. “Social prejudices” such as racism and sexism are shown and fought throughout the series. The group that most aptly represents the racism of our own world is the Death Eaters. Caped and hooded like members of the Ku Klux Klan, their reassembly upon Voldemort’s return draws on “depictions of racist riots.” Voldemort himself resembles “a fascistic political leader” like Hitler whose “crucial aim and motivation for power is set within the context of social prejudices against non-magical human beings (hence his hatred of ‘Mud-bloods’)” (Barfield 4 ¶ 3). Voldemort, like Hitler, wants to purify the magical community leaving only what Hitler would call “the master race” of pure-blooded witches and wizards. The racism in the Harry Potter books does not only apply to inter-human relationships but also applies to different races of magical creatures. This class structure of races can be seen in the fountain of Magical Brethren at the Ministry of Magic in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Barfield explains:
It includes ‘a noble -looking wizard,’ ‘a beautiful witch’ and adoring magical creatures who look up to him: ‘a centaur, a goblin and a house- elf’…Giants are noticeable by their erasure from the structure. Later, Harry suggests that the wizard statue, in fact, looks ‘weak and foolish’ and questions the realism of the attitudes displayed by the goblin and centaur toward the humans. (5 ¶ 2)
Harry, having grown up outside of the magical community, discovers the prejudices of their world with the reader. He knows that the statue is not an accurate picture of the goblin’s and centaur’s sentiments towards humans because he has met goblins and centaurs before who hold a general feeling of detestation towards humans. Rowling uses the fountain to show Harry and the reader that the magical world is controlled by humans and that their superiority complex is causing unrest in their community. It represents the witches’ and wizards’ concept that all other creatures admire their greatness, that all other creatures are beneath them. Giants are so belittled that they are not even included in the statue. Dumbledore comments on the problem saying, “we wizards have mistreated and abused our fellows for too long and we are now reaping our reward” (Rowling qtd. in Barfield 5 ¶ 2). The superiority represented by the fountain is reminiscent of fascis m in Europe and racial prejudices in the United States, and these similarities give Rowling’s magical world a realism that allows the reader to believe in its existence. Barfield hypothesizes that “it is perhaps the case that the popularity of the Harry Potter books is indicative of how they strike[s] a chord (while also being very entertaining) with those dissatisfied with the contemporary world they find themselves living in, but who are unsure of what can be done to alter those things that most need changing” (Barfield 5 ¶ 2).
Whether it be through the imposition of realistic elements into a fantasy world or contemporary problems into a magical society, J.R.R. Tolkien and J.K. Rowling succeed in inducing that willing suspension of disbelief in their readers that allows them to reach the true meanings of the pieces. The effects of such authors’ works on our society have yet to be fully realized. Not only have they reintroduced the fun of reading to children but they have also begun an entertainment phenomenon on the silver screen.
Chapter VII
The fiction and fantasy genre’s impact on the literary world is undeniable; from Beowulf to the works of Shakespeare, Coleridge, and Shelley to The Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter series, it has evolved and grown. However, the impact has been felt not only by the reader but also by the viewer. A member of a viewing audience can undergo the same willing suspension of disbelief while seeing a production that the reader experiences while exploring a novel. For that reason, movie makers have been trying to recreate the worlds of literature on screen in such a way as to induce that suspension of disbelief in their audiences that is achieved by the books themselves. Sometimes the film makers succeed, and sometimes they fail. But the attempt in itself to achieve such faith has brought the wonders of great literature to a culture that is obsessed with technology. Even if it is to give the public a taste of what they are missing in their reading lives, movies have come to play an important role in the willing suspension of disbelief of our society.
Upon the dawn of massive revenues from fantasy films based on books, writers have begun to create fantasies that are not as carefully crafted as those of earlier authors, resulting in stories that, in no way, induce willing suspension of disbelief in the audience. One critic says, “when used without attention to internal consistency and credibility, without any effort to make the ‘rules’ by which the fantastic functions internally logical, the supernatural becomes a cardboard prop rather than an inherent element of the story” (Johansen 4 ¶ 1-2). Therefore, it is the viewers’ and the readers’ duties to discern what is truly credible. A good indication of a credible work of fictional literature or cinema is the arousal of emotion in the audience, and it is by this indicator that one can detect suspension of disbelief. This relieving of emotional tension through the arts is called catharsis, and it is catharsis that one feels after experiencing w illing suspension of disbelief in a great book or movie. We have all felt it after watching our favorite movie or reading our favorite book, that sense of relief from reality and all of its complications, and we owe that feeling to the writers and their ability to induce our suspension of disbelief.
Willing suspension of disbelief plays an important role in the psychological growth of humanity. Without it the imagination would never be fully tapped, and the creativity that has shaped our world would be rendered at a stand still. The ability to willingly suspend disbelief allows us to broaden our minds to all possibilities, resulting in dreams, inventions, and progress. Johansen says, “good literary use of the improbable and impossible, however fantastic, cultivates the ability to think” (4 ¶ 1). As the theme song of Walt Disney World’s Carousel of Progress says, “There’s a great big beautiful tomorrow shining at the end of every day. There’s a great big beautiful tomorrow, and tomorrow is just a dream away” (Sherman 1).
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